Methods and devices for the determination of core dependent loss in multi-core fiber transmission systems using core scrambling

ABSTRACT

The various embodiments provide an optical transmission system comprising an optical transmitter configured to transmit data over an optical fiber transmission channel comprising a multi-core fiber, the data being carried by optical signals, the optical signals propagating along the multi-core fiber according to two or more cores, the multi-core fiber being associated with fiber parameters and misalignment losses values, at least one scrambling device being arranged in the optical fiber transmission channel for scrambling the two or more cores according to a scrambling function, wherein the optical fiber transmission channel comprises a system configuration device configured to determine a core dependent loss value depending on the fiber parameters, at least one misalignment loss, a number of the at least one scrambling device, and the scrambling function.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a National Stage of International patent application PCT/EP2019/059139, filed on Apr. 10, 2019, which claims priority to foreign European patent application No. EP 18305538.3, filed on Apr. 27, 2018, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The invention generally relates to optical communications and in particular to devices and methods for core dependent loss determination in multi-core fibers implementing core scrambling.

BACKGROUND

Optical fibers have been extensively used over the last decades in optical transmission systems for the transfer of data (e.g. voice, multimedia, video) over distances of less than a meter to thousands of kilometers.

Optical fibers are optical waveguides that guide electromagnetic waves in the optical spectrum. Optical fibers include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction. Light propagates in the fiber, following a succession of internal reflections. Light carries data and allows transmission over long distances at higher bandwidths than in wire-based or wireless communication systems.

The amount of the data traffic in optical communication networks has been exponentially expanded in accordance with the increase of internet traffic. The transmission capacities and reach of optical communication systems using single-mode fibers has been increased since the practical use of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), coherent detection and polarization division multiplexing (PDM) along with advanced signal processing.

However, WDM-PDM systems using conventional single mode fibers, with a small core radius where waves propagate along a single propagation mode, almost reached the non-linear capacity limit of optical transmission systems and cannot cope with the exponential growth in the demand for higher network bandwidth.

Space division multiplexing (SDM), realized using multi-mode fibers (MMFs) or multi-core fibers (MCFs), is expected to overcome the capacity limit of the current optical transmission systems. Space division multiplexing exploits the space in the fiber as the last degree of freedom available to increase the capacity on the optical fiber transmission. Space is used as a multiplexing dimension for the creation of a plurality of independent spatial channels over which independent data streams can be multiplexed and carried in the same fiber. Using SDM, the capacity can be multiplied by the number of independent spatial channels, thus increasing both the reach and the transmission capacities of optical fiber transmission links.

Multi-mode fibers allow the propagation of light according to different spatial propagation modes. The core of a multi-mode fiber is enlarged to allow the propagation of more than one spatial mode. The number of reflections created as the light passes through the core increases, creating the ability to propagate more data at a given time slot.

Multi-mode fibers can offer higher transmission rates than single-mode fibers. However, multi-mode fibers are affected by several impairments mainly due to imperfections of the optical components (e.g. fibers, amplifiers, spatial multiplexers), the crosstalk effects between the spatial modes, and non-unitary crosstalk effects known as mode dependent loss (MDL).

Multi-core fibers incorporate multiple identical or different cores in a single fiber, each core being single-mode or multi-mode. Multi-core fibers can be classified into uncoupled and coupled MCFs.

In uncoupled MCFs, each core has to be suitably arranged to keep the inter-core crosstalk sufficiently small for long distance transmission applications to detect signals from each core separately (i.e. no multiple-input multiple-output equalization is required at receiver). Several types of uncoupled multi-core fibers have been designed according to different core arrangements. These designs comprise ‘homogeneous MCFs’ and ‘homogeneous with trench-assisted MCFs’ incorporating multiple identical cores, and heterogeneous MCFs' incorporating multiple cores of several types.

In coupled MCFs, several cores are placed so that they strongly and/or weakly couple with each other. Coupled MCFs supporting a single spatial mode and multiple spatial modes can be used in high-power fiber laser applications.

Multi-core fibers are affected by several impairments due to the misalignment losses and crosstalk effects. The crosstalk and misalignment losses induce a core dependent loss (CDL). The CDL is an impairment effect similar to the MDL affecting multi-mode fibers.

The misalignment losses rise due to the imperfections of the optical fiber at the splices and connector part. Three types of misalignment losses exist comprising the longitudinal displacement losses, the transverse displacement losses, and angular displacement losses.

The crosstalk effect is due to the existence of multiple cores in one cladding which generates a crosstalk between the neighboring cores. The crosstalk increases with a smaller inter-core distance and represents the main limitation to the capacity in terms of the optical signal quality and the number of cores integrated inside a multi-core fiber. Further, low crosstalk effects enable a decoding complexity reduction at the optical receiver since no multiple-input multiple-output equalization is required for small crosstalk values.

Optical solutions can be applied during the manufacturing of the optical fibers in order to reduce the crosstalk effect.

A first approach consists in increasing the inter-core distance. This approach enables reducing the crosstalk effect, however it limits the number of cores inside the fiber due to the cladding diameter and consequently it decreases the core density and capacity.

A second approach is based on trench assistance with the use of trench-assisted homogeneous multi-core fibers. Trench assistance reduces the coupling coefficients by surrounding each core with a low-index trench layer. The crosstalk in trench-assisted fiber designs is dependent of the inter-core distance and lower than the inter-core crosstalk raising in fibers without trench assistance.

A third solution uses heterogeneous MCFs in which an intrinsic index profile between neighbor cores is introduced, enabling reducing the crosstalk effect.

Further, a random core scrambling technique, disclosed in “A. Abouseif, G. R. Ben-Othman, and Y. Jaouen, Core Mode Scramblers for ML-detection based Multi-Core Fibers Transmission, in Asia Communications and Photonics Conference, OSA Technical Digest, 2017”, has been recently proposed to mitigate the CDL in heterogeneous trench-assisted MCFs and to enhance the system performance. It is demonstrated that random core scrambling enables achieving better performance in terms of error probabilities; however random scrambling requires installing a large number of random scramblers which induces an additional implementation complexity and cost on the transmission system.

Although existing solutions enable a reduction of the crosstalk in multi-core fibers, they do not enable an estimation of the core dependent loss and a prediction of the performance behavior of the optical transmission system which depend on the value of the core dependent loss. There is accordingly a need for developing channel modeling and calculation techniques enabling a determination of the core dependent loss values for a given configuration of multi-core fibers-based optical transmission systems in which core scrambling is used.

SUMMARY

In order to address these and other problems, there is provided an optical transmission system comprising an optical transmitter configured to transmit data over an optical fiber transmission channel made of a multi-core fiber. Optical signals carrying the data propagate along the multi-core fiber according to two or more cores. The multi-core fiber is associated with fiber parameters and misalignment losses values. At least one scrambling device is arranged in the optical fiber transmission channel for scrambling the two or more cores according to a scrambling function. The optical fiber transmission channel comprises a system configuration device configured to determine a core dependent loss value depending on the fiber parameters, the misalignments losses, the at least one scrambling device and the scrambling function.

In some embodiments, the fiber parameters comprise a fiber length, a number of cores at least equal to two, crosstalk coefficients, and coupling coefficients, each crosstalk coefficient representing a crosstalk between two cores in the multi-core fiber, each coupling coefficient representing a coupling between two cores in the multi-core fiber.

In some embodiments, the misalignments loss values represent a misalignment of the multi-core fiber chosen in a group comprising a longitudinal misalignment, a transverse misalignments and an angular misalignment.

In some embodiments, the system configuration device may be configured to determine a core loss value associated with each core of the multi-core fiber depending on the fiber parameters, the misalignments loss values, the at least one scrambling device and the scrambling function.

According to some embodiments, the system configuration device may be configured to determine each core loss value as a random variable of a lognormal distribution defined by a mean value and a variance value, the mean value and variance value being dependent on the fiber parameters and the misalignments losses values.

According to some embodiments, the mean value of each core loss value associated with each core of the multi-core fiber is a product between a first value and a second value, the first value corresponding to the mean of a lognormal random variable representing a total misalignment loss associated with said each core, the second value corresponding to a total crosstalk coefficient associated with said each core, the total crosstalk coefficient associated with a given core being determined from the crosstalk coefficients representing the crosstalk between said given core and the cores of the multi-core fiber different from said given core. The variance value of each core loss value associated with each core of the multi-core fiber is the product between the square value of the total crosstalk coefficient associated with said each core and a third value corresponding to the variance of said lognormal random variable representing the total misalignment loss associated with said each core.

According to some embodiments, the system configuration device may be further configured to determine a target core dependent loss value and to select at least one of the fiber parameters of the multi-core fiber depending on the core dependent loss value with respect to the target core dependent loss value.

According to some embodiments, a target performance metric may be chosen in a group comprising a target signal-to-noise ratio and a target bit or symbol error rate.

In some embodiments, the optical transmission system may comprise a scrambling configuration device configured to determine a scrambling function according to a deterministic scrambling criterion.

According to some embodiments, the deterministic scrambling criterion may depend on one or more of core parameters associated with the cores of the multi-core fiber, a core parameter associated with each core of the multi-core fiber being chosen in a group comprising a core type and a core loss value.

According to some embodiments, the scrambling configuration device may be configured to order the two or more cores of the multi-core fiber according to a given order of the core loss values associated with the two or more cores, the deterministic scrambling criterion being dependent on the order of the core loss values associated with the two or more cores.

In some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is a heterogeneous multi-core fiber, the scrambling configuration device may be configured to determine the deterministic scrambling criterion depending on the core types associated with the two or more cores, the scrambling function according to the deterministic scrambling criterion corresponding to a two-by-two permutation of the two or more cores according to the permutation of at least a first core with a second core, the first core and the second core being associated with different core types.

In some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is a heterogeneous multi-core fiber, the scrambling configuration device may be configured to determine the deterministic scrambling criterion depending on the core types and the core loss values associated with the two or more cores, the scrambling function according to the deterministic scrambling criterion corresponding to a two-by-two permutation of the two or more cores according to the permutation of at least a first core with a second core, the first core and the second core being associated with different core types and different core loss values.

There is also provided a method for determining a core dependent loss value for an optical fiber communication system in which data is transmitted over an optical fiber transmission channel made of a multi-core fiber. Optical signals carrying data propagate along the multi-core fiber according to two or more cores. The multi-core fiber is associated with fiber parameters and misalignment losses values. The method comprises scrambling the two or more cores according to a scrambling function and determining a core dependent loss value depending on the fiber parameters, the misalignment losses values, and the scrambling function.

Advantageously, the core dependent loss value calculation devices and methods according to the various embodiments enable an estimation and a prediction of the performance behavior of the multi-core fiber transmission channel by the evaluation of the core dependent loss for a given configuration of the fiber transmission channel (comprising a given number of fiber spans and fiber misalignment values), given fiber parameters, given number of core scramblers/scrambling devices, and given core scrambling techniques (random or deterministic, identical or different).

Advantageously, the optical channel modeling techniques according to the various embodiments of the invention provide efficient tools for the design and manufacturing of multi-core fiber transmission systems with reduced core dependent loss effects and reduced number of scrambling devices (such as optical multiplexers) used for core scrambling.

Further advantages of the present invention will become clear to the skilled person upon examination of the drawings and the detailed description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate various embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of an exemplary application of the invention in optical communication systems;

FIG. 2 illustrates a cross section view of an exemplary multi-core fiber;

FIG. 3 depicts cross section views of multi-core fibers with a 12-cores homogeneous multi-core fiber comprising twelve cores arranged on a ring around the fiber axis and a 19-cores homogeneous fiber comprising nineteen cores arranged in a two-dimensional grid comprising a central core, according to some embodiments;

FIG. 4 depicts a cross section view of a multi-core fiber, according to some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is a 12-cores homogeneous trench-assisted multi-core fiber;

FIG. 5 illustrates a cross section view of a multi-core fiber, according to some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is a 12-cores heterogeneous multi-core fiber comprising twelve cores arranged on a ring around the fiber axis;

FIG. 6 illustrates cross section views of multi-core fibers with a 7-cores heterogeneous fiber comprising seven cores and a 19-cores heterogeneous fiber comprising three groups of cores, the cores of each the different groups having different types, according to some embodiments;

FIG. 7 illustrates cross section views of multi-core fibers, with a 12-cores heterogeneous trench-assisted multi-core fiber comprising twelve cores arranged on a ring around the fiber axis and a multi-core fiber is a 7-cores heterogeneous trench-assisted, according to some embodiments;

FIG. 8 is a block diagram illustrating the structure of an optical transmitter according to some embodiments of the invention;

FIG. 9 is a block diagram illustrating the structure of an optical receiver according to some embodiments of the invention;

FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating a method for determining a core dependent loss value in a multi-core fiber optical transmission system according to some embodiments of the invention in which core scrambling, a single polarization, a single wavelength, a single carrier uncoded modulation without the application of Space-Time coding, are used;

FIG. 11 illustrates a cross section view of a multi-core fiber, according to some embodiments in which a snail scrambling technique is considered;

FIG. 12 illustrates a cross section view of a multi-core fiber, according to some embodiments in which a rotation scrambling technique is considered, and

FIG. 13 illustrates a cross section view of a multi-core fiber, according to some embodiments in which a snake scrambling technique is considered;

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the present invention provide devices and methods for the channel modeling of a multi-core optical fiber transmission system and the estimation of the core dependent loss for a given configuration of the multi-core fiber transmission system and a given core scrambling, the determination of the core dependent loss enabling advantageously an efficient design of the multi-core fiber transmission system with a reduced effects of the core dependent loss and a reduced number of core scrambling devices.

Devices and methods according to the various embodiments of the invention may be implemented in optical fiber transmission systems applied to a wide variety of applications. Exemplary applications comprise, without limitation, optical fiber communications, aerospace and avionics, data storage, automotive industry, imaging, transportation, sensing, and photonics.

Exemplary communication applications comprise desktop computers, terminals, and nationwide networks. Optical fibers may be used to transmit light and thus information/data over short distances (less than one meter) or long distances (up to hundreds or thousands of kilometers for example in communications over metropolitan networks, wide area networks, transoceanic links). Such applications may involve transfer of voice (e.g. in telephony), data (e.g. data supply to homes and offices known as fiber to the home), images or video (e.g. transfer of internet traffic), or connection of networks (e.g. connection of switches or routers and data center connectivity in high-speed local area networks).

In an exemplary implementation of the invention in the field of aerospace and avionics industries, optical fiber-based products may be used in military and/or commercial applications. Optical fiber technologies and products are designed in such applications to meet rigorous testing and certifications requirements in harsh environments and conditions.

In an exemplary implementation of the invention in data storage applications, optical fibers may be used in data storage equipments as a link between multiple devices in a network and/or as part of a storage system. Optical fiber connectivity offers very high bandwidth even over extended distances.

In another exemplary application of the invention to automotive industry, optical fiber technologies may be used for example in lighting/illumination, communications, and sensing for safety and control devices and systems.

In still another exemplary application of the invention to imaging applications (e.g. telemedicine), the optical transmission properties of the optical fibers may be used to transmit an image of a target or a subject area to the image view end for analysis and/or interpretation.

The invention may be used also in transportation systems, in which smart highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths and changeable message signs may use telemetry systems based on optical fibers.

The invention may further be used in sensing applications, where optical fiber sensors may be used for sensing some quantities such as temperatures, displacements, vibrations, pressure, acceleration, rotations, and concentration of chemical species. Exemplary applications of optical fiber sensors comprise sensing in high voltage and high-power machinery or in microwaves, distributed temperature and strain measurements in buildings for remote monitoring (e.g. monitoring of the wings of airplanes, wind turbines, bridges, pipelines), downhole sensing in oil exploration applications, etc.

In another application of the invention to photonics, optical fibers may be used for connecting components in optical fiber devices, such as interferometers and fiber lasers. In such application, optical fibers play a similar role as electrical wires do in electronic devices.

The following description of certain embodiments will be made with reference to communication applications, for illustration purposes only. However, the skilled person will readily understand that the various embodiments of the invention may be applied to other types of systems for different applications.

FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary implementation of the invention in an optical transmission system 100 (also referred to as ‘optical communication system’) based on optical fiber transmissions. The optical transmission system 100 comprises at least one optical transmitter device 11 (hereinafter referred to as an “optical transmitter”) configured to encode an input data sequence into an optical signal and transmit the optical signal optically to at least one optical receiver device 15 (hereinafter referred to as an “optical receiver”) through an optical fiber transmission channel 13 (hereinafter referred to as an ‘optical fiber link’) configured to transmit the light over some distance.

The optical communication system 100 may comprise computers and/or softwares to control the system operability.

The optical fiber transmission channel 13 comprises a multi-core fiber comprising a concatenation of a plurality of fiber sections 131 (also referred to as ‘fiber span’ or ‘fiber slice’). The fiber sections 131 may be aligned or misaligned.

The multi-core fiber is a cylindrical non-linear waveguide consisting of two or more cores, a cladding surrounding the two or more cores, and a coating. Each core has a refractive index. The optical signal sent by the optical transmitter 11 is multiplexed and is guided in each core of the multi-core fiber through total internal reflections due to the difference between the refractive indices of the cores and the refractive index of the cladding.

In some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is an uncoupled fiber, each core of the multi-core fiber may act as a separate waveguide such that the optical signal can be considered as propagating independently trough the cores.

In some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is a coupled fiber, some coupling may exist between the cores if the distance between two cores is so small that the optical signals propagating along the different cores overlap.

The optical fiber may be made of glass (e.g. silica, quartz glass, fluoride glass), typically for long-distance transmissions. For short distance transmissions, the optical fiber may be a plastic optical fiber.

The multi-core fiber may be characterized by geometrical parameters and optical parameters. Geometrical parameters may comprise the cladding diameter, the core-to-core distance, and the core-outer cladding distance. Optical parameters may comprise the wavelength, the crosstalk coefficients representing the crosstalk between the different cores of the multi-core fiber, and the refractive index difference between each core and the cladding.

In some embodiments, the optical fiber communication system 100 may operate in a wavelength region corresponding to a region chosen in a group comprising:

-   -   the window of wavelengths ranging in 800-900 nm, suitable for         short-distance transmissions;     -   the window of wavelengths around 1.3 μm, used for example for         long-haul transmissions;     -   the window of wavelengths around 1.5 μm, more used since the         losses of silica fibers are lowest in this wavelength region.

FIG. 2 depicts a cross section of a six-cores fiber, D_(clad) representing the cladding diameter, d_(c-c) designating the inter-core distance, and d_(c-Clad) representing the core-outer cladding distance.

In some embodiments, the cores in the multi-core fiber may be arranged on a ring around the fiber axis for example on the edges of a hexagon. In other embodiments, the cores may be arranged on some 2-dimensional grid.

In an embodiment, the multi-core fiber may be a homogeneous multi-core fiber comprising two or more cores of identical types.

FIG. 3 depicts two cross sections of two exemplary homogeneous multi-core fibers, a first 12-cores fiber comprising 12 cores of identical types arranged on a ring around the fiber axis, and a second 19-cores fiber comprising 18 cores arranged on the edges of the hexagon and a central core.

In an embodiment, the multi-core fiber may be a homogeneous trench-assisted multi-core fiber, each core being surrounded by a low-index trench layer.

FIG. 4 illustrates a cross section of an exemplary trench-assisted homogeneous multi-core fiber comprising 12 cores of identical types.

In another embodiment, the multi-core fiber may be a heterogeneous multi-core fiber comprising a plurality of cores among which at least two cores are of different types.

FIG. 5 illustrates a cross section of an exemplary heterogeneous multi-core fiber comprising 12 cores among which cores numbered 2i+1 with i=0, . . . , 5 are identical, the cores numbered 2i+2 with i=0, . . . , 5 are identical, and the cores numbered 2i+1 are of a core type different from the core type of the cores numbered 2i+2 for i=0, . . . , 5. Each core in such heterogeneous multi-core fiber has two neighbors, each core having a core type different from the core type of its neighbor cores.

FIG. 6 illustrates two cross sections of two exemplary 7-cores fiber and 19-cores heterogeneous fibers. The 7-cores fiber comprises comprising six cores on the edges of the hexagon numbered 1-6 and a central core numbered 7. This 7-cores fiber involves three different core types, the central core having a core type different from the types of the cores on the edges of the hexagon, and each core arranged on the edges of the hexagon having a core type different from the core type of its neighbor cores. The 19-cores fiber comprises three different core types, the central core having a core type different from the types of the cores on the edges of the hexagon.

In an embodiment, the multi-core fiber may be a trench-assisted heterogeneous multi-core fiber.

FIG. 7 depicts two cross sections of two exemplary 12-cores and 7-cores trench-assisted heterogeneous multi-core fibers.

In some embodiments, each core of the multi-core fiber may be single mode comprising one spatial propagation mode.

In some embodiments, the multi-core fiber may comprise at least one multi-mode core comprising two or more spatial propagation modes.

The optical fiber transmission channel 13 may further comprise one or more amplifiers 132 inserted in the fiber for re-amplifying the optical power and compensating for the fiber attenuation without the need to regenerate the optical signals such that a sufficient signal power can be maintained over large distance where optical signals need to be periodically amplified.

The amplifiers 132 may be inserted between each pair of fiber slices 131. In particular, an amplifier 132 inserted at the end of the optical fiber transmission channel performs signal amplification before signal detection at the receiver 15.

Each amplifier 132 may be configured to simultaneously amplify the optical signal corresponding to the plurality of cores in the multi-core fiber.

In some embodiments, the amplifiers 132 may consist of a duplication of a single core fiber amplifier.

In other embodiments, an amplifier 132 may be an optical multi-core amplifier. Exemplary optical amplifiers comprise multi-core Erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) such as core-pumped multi-core EDFAs and cladding-pumped EDFA amplifiers. Core-pumped and cladding pumped amplifiers may use a single or a plurality of pump diodes. In particular, a pump diode per core may be used in EDFA amplifiers.

In some embodiments, the optical signal amplification may be performed in a distributed manner using the non-linear simulated Raman scattering effect. In such embodiments, the fiber is used as both a transmission link and an amplification medium.

In other embodiments, signal amplification may be achieved by a joint use of regularly arranged optical amplifiers and of simulated Raman Scattering effects.

In still other embodiments, the signal amplification may be performed in the electrical domain through an optical/electrical conversion (not illustrated in FIG. 1). In such embodiments, the optical fiber transmission channel 13 may comprise, at each amplification stage:

-   -   a photodiode for converting the optical signal back to the         electrical domain;     -   an electrical amplifier for amplifying the converted electrical         signal; and     -   a laser diode for generating an optical signal corresponding to         the amplified electrical signal.

According to some embodiments (not illustrated in FIG. 1), the optical transmission channel 13 may further comprise one or more of:

-   -   dispersion compensators for counteracting the effects of         chromatic dispersion, a dispersion compensator being configured         to cancel the chromatic dispersion or compensate the dispersion         for example before the detection of the optical signal at the         receiver 15;     -   optical switches and multiplexers such as optical add/drop         multiplexers implemented in wavelength division multiplexing         systems;     -   one or more devices for regenerating the optical signal such as         electronic and optical regenerators.

In some embodiments in which core scrambling is performed in the optical domain using optical devices, optical multiplexers may be used as core scramblers.

FIG. 8 shows the components of an optical transmitter 11 according to some embodiments. The optical transmitter 11 may be configured to transform an input data sequence into an optical signal to be transmitted through the optical transmission channel 13. Accordingly, the optical transmitter 11 may comprise:

-   -   a Forward Error Correcting code (FEC) encoder 81 (also referred         to as ‘an error correcting code encoder 81’) configured to         encode an input data sequence of length k (i.e. comprising k         symbols) into an encoded sequence in the form of a codeword         vector of length n>k by applying at least one Forward Error         Correcting code (FEC) (also referred to as ‘an error correcting         code’);     -   an interleaver 83 configured to mix the encoded sequence to add         a protection layer to the encoded symbols against burst errors         before being modulated;     -   a modulator 85 configured to determine a set of modulated         symbols in a form of a modulated symbol vector s_(c) by applying         a modulation scheme to the interleaved encoded sequence (or to         the codeword vectors in embodiments where the transmitter 11         does not comprise an interleaver). Different modulation schemes         may be implemented such as 2^(q)-QAM or 2^(q)-PSK with 2^(q)         symbols or states. The modulated vector s_(c) may be a         complex-value vector comprising K complex-value symbols s₁, s₂,         . . . , s_(K) with q bits per symbol. When modulation formats         such as 2^(q)-QAM are used, the 2^(q) symbols or states         represent a sub-set of the integer field         [i]. The corresponding constellation is composed of 2^(q) points         representing the different states or symbols. In addition, in         the case of squared modulations, the real and imaginary parts of         the information symbols belong to the same finite alphabet         A=[−(q−1), (q−1)];     -   a Space-Time Encoder 87 configured to determine a codeword         matrix carrying the data symbols to be sent through the optical         transmission channel 13 during a Time Transmission Interval         (TTI) by applying a Space-Time code. The Space-Time encoder 25         may be configured to transform each received sequence (or block)         of Q modulated symbols s₁, s₂, . . . , s_(Q) into a codeword         matrix X of dimensions N_(t)×T. A codeword matrix comprises         complex values arranged in N_(t) rows and T columns where N_(t)         designates the number of propagation cores used for propagating         optical signals and T designates the temporal length of the         Space-Time code and corresponds to the number of temporal         channel uses. Each value of a codeword matrix accordingly         corresponds to a time of use and to a propagation core used for         the signal propagation. The Space-Time Encoder 87 may use a         linear Space-Time Block Code (STBC) to generate the codeword         matrix. The coding rate of such codes is equal to κ/T complex         symbols per channel use, where κ is the number of encoded         complex-value symbols composing the vector s_(c)=[s₁, s₂, . . .         , s_(K)]^(t) of dimension K in this case. When full-rate codes         are used, the Space-Time Encoder 87 encodes κ=N_(t)T         complex-value symbols. Examples of STBCs are the Perfect Codes.         The Perfect Codes provide full coding rates by encoding a number         κ=N_(t) ² (T=N_(t)) of complex information symbols and satisfy a         non-vanishing determinant property.

In some embodiments, the Space-Time Encoder 87 may use a spatial multiplexing scheme known as V-BLAST scheme by multiplexing the received complex-value information symbols over the different propagation cores, without performing a coding in the time dimension.

According to some embodiments, the input data sequence may be a binary sequence comprising k bits. The FEC encoder 81 may be configured, in such embodiments, to encode the input binary sequence into a binary codeword vector comprising n bits by applying at least one binary FEC code.

In other embodiments, the input data sequence may comprise symbols that take values in a Galois Field GF(q) with q>2 representing the order of the Galois Field. In such embodiments, the FEC encoder 22 may be configured to encode the input data sequence into a codeword vector comprising n symbols, each symbol comprised in the codeword vector takes value in the Galois Field GF(q). The encoding process in this case may be performed using a non-binary FEC code constructed over GF(q) with q>2.

By performing the coding operation, the FEC encoder 81 adds redundant bits (in general redundant symbols) to the input binary sequence so that the receiver can detect and/or correct common transmission errors. The use of a FEC code provides an additional protection and immunity against transmission errors and allows significant improvement in performance with respect to uncoded transmission (i.e. transmission of modulated data without FEC encoding).

Additional improvements and reduction on the probability of error may be achieved through the concatenation of two or more FEC codes. Concatenation of codes may follow a serial, a parallel, or a multi-level architecture. The FEC encoder 81 may be accordingly configured to implement two or more FEC codes.

The optical transmitter 11 may further comprise a plurality of multi-carrier modulators 88 configured to generate multi-carrier symbols by implementing a multi-carrier modulation technique within each optical carrier involving a large number of orthogonal sub-carriers. Moreover, multi-carrier modulations may be implemented for providing a better resistance to the inter-symbol interference resulting from the fiber dispersion and crosstalk between the various cores in the multi-core fiber. Exemplary multi-carrier modulation formats comprise Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Filter Bank Multi-Carrier (FBMC).

The frequency-domain signal delivered by the multicarrier modulators 88 may be then processed by a digital-optical Front-End 89 configured to convert the received frequency-domain signal to the optical domain. The digital-optical Front-End 88 may perform the conversion using a number of lasers of given wavelengths and a plurality of optical modulators (not shown in FIG. 8) associated with the used polarization states and the spatial propagation modes in the cores of the multi-core fiber. A laser may be configured to generate a laser beam of a same or different wavelength using Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) techniques. The different laser beams may be then modulated using the different outputs of the OFDM symbols (or the different values of the codeword matrix in embodiments using single-carrier modulations) by means of the optical modulators and polarized according to the different polarization states of the fiber. Exemplary modulators comprise Mach-Zehnder modulators. A phase and/or amplitude modulation may be used. In addition, the modulation scheme used by the various optical modulators for modulating the different optical signals may be similar or different.

The number of the optical modulators and lasers depends on the number of used polarization states, the number of used propagation modes in each core of the multi-core fiber, and on the number of cores in the fiber.

The digital-optical front-end 88 may further comprise a FAN-IN device (not illustrated in FIG. 8) configured to inject the generated optical signals into each core of the multi-core fiber to propagate according to the available propagation modes in each core. Optical connectors may be used to connect the output end of the FAN-IN device and the input end of the multi-core optical transmission channel 13.

The optical signals generated according to any of the preceding embodiments may propagate along the fiber until reaching the other end of the optical transmission channel 13 where it is processed by an optical receiver 15.

FIG. 9 is a block diagram of an optical receiver 15 according to some embodiments. The optical receiver 15 is configured to receive the optical signal transmitted by the optical transmitter 11 through the transmission channel 13 and to generate an estimate of the original input data sequence. Accordingly, the optical receiver 15 may comprise:

-   -   an optical-digital front-end 91 configured to detect the optical         signals, using for example one or more photodiodes, and to         convert them into a digital signal. The optical-digital         front-end 91 may comprise a FAN-OUT device (not illustrated in         FIG. 9);     -   a plurality of multi-carrier demodulators 92 configured to         remove the cyclic prefix and generate a set of decision         variables to be delivered to the Space-Time decoder 93;     -   a Space-Time decoder 93 configured to generate an estimate of         the modulated data sequence from the set of decision variables         by applying a Space-Time decoding algorithm;     -   a demodulator 94 configured to generate a binary sequence by         performing a demodulation of the modulated data sequence         estimated by the Space-Time decoder 93;     -   a de-interleaver 95 configured to rearrange the order of the         bits (in general the symbols) in the binary sequence delivered         by the demodulator 94 to restore the original order of the bits;         and     -   a FEC decoder 96 (also referred to as ‘an error correcting code         decoder 96’) configured to deliver an estimate of the input data         sequence processed by the optical transmitter device 11 by         applying a soft or hard-decision FEC decoder to the reordered         binary sequence delivered by the de-interleaver 95. Exemplary         soft-decision FEC decoders comprise the Viterbi algorithm.

The Space-Time decoder 93 may implement a Space-Time decoding algorithm chosen in a group consisting of a maximum likelihood decoder, a Zero-Forcing decoder, a Zero-Forcing Decision Feedback Equalizer, and a Minimum Mean Square Error decoder.

Exemplary maximum likelihood decoders comprise the sphere decoder, the Schnorr-Euchner decoder, the stack decoder, the spherical-bound-stack decoder.

In embodiments using single-carrier modulations, the plurality of multi-carrier modulators 92 may be replaced by a single modulator. Similarly, the multi-carrier demodulators 92 may be replaced by a single demodulator.

In some embodiments in which the FEC encoder 81 implements a concatenation of two or more forward error correcting codes, a corresponding structure may be implemented by the FEC decoder 96. For example, in embodiments based on a serial concatenation of an inner code and an outer code, the FEC decoder 96 may comprise an inner code decoder, a de-interleaver, and an outer code decoder (not shown in FIG. 9). In embodiments involving two codes in a parallel architecture, the FEC decoder 96 may comprise a de-multiplexer, a de-interleaver, and a joint decoder (not shown in FIG. 9).

The following description of certain embodiments of the invention will be made with reference to an optical communication system 100 using a single polarization, a single wavelength, a single carrier-modulation, a single error correcting code without Space-Time Coding, and a single-mode multi-core fiber, for illustration purposes only. However, the skilled person will readily understand that the various embodiments of the invention can also be applied in multi-core fibers in combination with polarization multiplexing using two polarizations and/or in combination with wavelength multiplexing using a plurality of wavelengths, and/or in combination with mode multiplexing using multi-mode fiber cores, and/or in combination with multi-carrier modulation formats, and/or in combination with Space-Time coding.

To facilitate the understanding of some embodiments of the invention, there follows some notations and/or definitions used hereinafter:

-   -   L designates the total length of the multi-core fiber in the         optical fiber transmission channel 13;     -   K designates the number of fiber sections concatenated in the         multi-core fiber (also referred to as ‘fiber slices’ or ‘fiber         spans’);     -   d designates a correlation length;     -   R_(b) designates a bending radius;     -   N_(c)≥2 designates the total number of cores in the multi-core         fiber, the cores being numbered (i.e. each core being associated         with a core number varying between 1 and N_(c)) such that a core         is designated as core-n with n taking value between 1 and N_(c);     -   R_(n) designates the radius of core-n;     -   each core core-n with n=1, . . . , N_(c) is associated with core         parameters denoted by {T_(n); λ_(n,p)}, with T_(n) designating         the core type of core-n and λ_(n,p) designating a core loss         value associated with the core-n and resulting of the core         scrambling;     -   XT_(n,m) refers to a crosstalk coefficient (also referred to as         ‘inter-core crosstalk coefficient’) quantifying the crosstalk         (also referred to as ‘inter-core cross-talk’) between the core-n         and the core-m with n≠m;     -   k_(n,m) refers to a coupling coefficient (also referred to as         ‘inter-core coupling’) quantifying the coupling (also referred         to as ‘inter-core coupling’) between the core-n and the core-m         with n≠m;     -   Δβ_(nm) stands for the propagation constant difference between         the core-n and the core-m with n≠m;     -   π designates a scrambling function used for core scrambling and         represented in a matrix form by a N_(c)×N_(c) permutation         matrix;

The various embodiments of the invention provide efficient channel modeling and calculation devices for the determination of the core dependent loss for a given optical fiber transmission channel 13 in an optical transmission system 100. The optical fiber transmission channel 13 is made of a multi-core fiber associated with a predefined fiber configuration and fiber parameters, misalignment losses values. At least one scrambling device 133 is arranged in the optical transmission channel 13 for scrambling the two or more cores of the multi-core fiber according to a scrambling function π. The channel modeling and CDL determination techniques according to the invention may be advantageously used during the design or manufacturing of the fiber to choose the multi-core fiber and/or to determine the number of fiber spans/slices and/or to determine the configuration of the transmission parameters such as the modulation scheme, the error correcting coding scheme, the Space-Time coding scheme, and the number and/or types of scrambling devices 133.

In some embodiments, the optical transmission system 100 comprises a system configuration device 17 configured to determine a core dependent loss value depending on the fiber parameters according to the predefined fiber configuration, at least one misalignment loss value, the at least one scrambling device 133 (the type of the at least one scrambling device 133 i.e. random or deterministic and the number of the at least one scrambling device 133) and the scrambling function π.

In embodiments in which two or more scrambling devices 133 are arranged in the optical fiber transmission channel 13, said two or more scrambling devices 133 may be identical (i.e. implementing a same scrambling function) or different (i.e. implementing different scrambling functions).

According to some embodiments, the fiber parameters comprise a fiber length L, a number of cores N_(c)≥2 at least equal to two, crosstalk coefficients XT_(n,m) with n,m∈{1, . . . , N_(c)}, and coupling coefficients k_(n,m) with n, m∈{1, . . . , N_(c)}, each crosstalk coefficient XT_(n,m) representing a crosstalk between the core-n and the core-m with n≠m in the multi-core fiber, each coupling coefficient k_(n,m) representing a coupling the core-n and the core-m with n≠m in the multi-core fiber.

The fiber parameters may further comprise a bending radius, a number of fiber slices K, the cladding diameter, the radius of each core of the multi-core fiber, and the type T_(n) of each core core-n of the multi-core fiber for n=1, . . . ,N_(c).

In some embodiments, the misalignment losses may rise due to the imperfections of the optical fiber at the fiber spans and of the connectors (e.g. the connectors between the FAN-IN/FAN-OUT devices and the input/output ends of the optical fiber transmission channel). Misalignments may comprise a misalignment chosen in a group comprising a longitudinal misalignment, a transverse misalignment, and an angular misalignment.

According to some embodiments, the misalignment losses may be modeled as random Gaussian variables. More specifically, the misalignment loss associated with core-n may be modeled as a random Gaussian variable of zero-mean and a standard deviation denoted by σ_((x,y),n) expressed according to:

$\begin{matrix} {\sigma_{{({x,y})},n} = \frac{r_{d}}{R_{n}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

In equation (1), r_(d) designates the transverse displacement of the multi-core fiber in the ‘x’ and ‘y’ directions.

In embodiments in which the optical fiber transmission channel 13 experiences inter-core crosstalk effects and misalignment effects, the optical transmission channel 13 may be represented by an optical multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) system described by the relation: Y=H·X+N  (2) In equation (2):

-   -   X designates a complex-value vector of length N_(c) comprising         N_(c) symbols transmitted over the optical transmission channel         13 such that the n^(th) symbol is transmitted over the core-n         with n=1, . . . , N_(c);     -   Y is a complex-value vector of length N_(c) designating the         received signal at the optical receiver 15,     -   H is a complex-value matrix of dimensions N_(c)×N_(c)         designating the optical channel matrix and representing the         undergone attenuations and the losses experienced by the cores         during the optical signal propagation over the different cores         in the multi-core fiber in addition to the misalignment losses,         and     -   N is a real-value vector of length N_(c) designating the optical         channel noise.

According to some embodiments, the optical channel noise may be a White Gaussian Noise of zero-mean and variance N₀.

In some embodiments, the scrambling function π may be represented in a matrix form by a permutation matrix denoted by P, the entries of the permutation matrix being given by:

$\begin{matrix} {P_{ij} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} 1 & {{{if}\mspace{14mu}{\pi\left( {core}_{i} \right)}} = {core}_{j}} \\ 0 & {\mspace{95mu}{otherwise}} \end{matrix} \right.} & (3) \end{matrix}$

The multi-core fiber is made of a concatenation of K fiber spans/slices. The optical transmission channel 13 may accordingly comprise at least one scrambling device 133 arranged periodically in the optical transmission channel 13 according to a scrambling period denoted by K_(scr), i.e. a scrambling device 133 may be arranged in the k^(th) fiber slice if k is a multiple of the scrambling period.

In such embodiments, each fiber span is equivalent to a multiplication of a crosstalk channel matrix, a misalignment channel matrix, and a permutation matrix P^((k))=P which is a N_(c)×N_(c) matrix representing the application of the scrambling function π in the k^(th) fiber span by the k^(th) scrambling device 133, k being a multiple of the scrambling period.

Accordingly, the optical MIMO system of equation (2) can be equivalently expressed according to: Y=√{square root over (L)}Π_(k=1) ^(K)((H _(XT,k))M _(k) P ^((k)))X+N  (4)

In equation (4):

-   -   L designates a normalization factor used to compensate the         optical fiber link loss;     -   H_(XT,k) designates the crosstalk channel matrix associated with         the k^(th) fiber span, and     -   M_(k) designates the misalignment channel matrix associated with         the k^(th) fiber span.

The inter-core crosstalk effects may be represented by a cross-talk channel matrix denoted by H_(XT) expressed according to:

$\begin{matrix} {H_{XT} = \begin{bmatrix} {XT}_{1} & {XT}_{1,2} & \ldots & {XT}_{1,N_{c}} \\ {XT}_{2,1} & \ddots & \ldots & {XT}_{2,N_{c}} \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ {XT}_{N_{c},1} & {XT}_{N_{c},2} & \ldots & {XT}_{N_{c},N_{c}} \end{bmatrix}} & (5) \end{matrix}$

In equation (5), the diagonal entries of the crosstalk channel matrix are given by XT_(n)=1−Σ_(n≠m)XT_(n,m). The crosstalk represents the exchanging energy between the cores and can be estimated based on the coupled-power theory, known to the person skilled in the art.

According to some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is homogeneous, the crosstalk coefficients XT_(n,m) quantifying the crosstalk between each core-n and core-m with n≠m are expressed according to:

$\begin{matrix} {{XT}_{n,m} = {\frac{2k_{n,m}^{2}R_{b}}{{\Lambda\beta}^{2}}L}} & (6) \end{matrix}$

In equation (6), Λ designates the core-to-core distance and β² designates the propagation constant.

According to some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is heterogeneous, the crosstalk coefficients XT_(n,m) quantifying the crosstalk between each core-n and core-m with n≠m are expressed according to:

$\begin{matrix} {{XT}_{n,m} = {\frac{2k_{n,m}^{2}}{{\Delta\beta}_{n,m}^{2}d}L}} & (7) \end{matrix}$

According to some embodiments, the system configuration device 17 may be configured to determine a core loss value λ_(n,p) associated with each core core-n for n=1, . . . , N_(c) depending on the fiber parameters, at least one misalignment loss value, the at least one scrambling device 133 (i.e. the types random or deterministic and the number of the at least one scrambling device 133), and the scrambling function π.

According to some embodiments, the system configuration device 17 may be configured to determine a core loss value λ_(n,p) associated with each core core-n for n=1, . . . , N_(c) by applying a singular value decomposition to the channel matrix H representative of the optical fiber transmission channel 13, the channel matrix being dependent on the permutation matrix P. In particular, the system configuration device 17 may be configured first to perform a QR decomposition of the optical channel matrix according to: H=QR  (8)

In equation (6), Q is a N_(c)×N_(c) orthogonal matrix and R is a N_(c)×N_(c) upper triangular matrix. The values of the diagonal entries of the upper triangular matrix R are given by: R _(ii)=α_(i,p)√{square root over ((XT _(i))²+Σ_(j=1) ^(N) ^(c) (XT _(i,j))²)}  (9)

In equation (9), α_(i,p) designates the total misalignment loss associated with the core core-i and resulting of the permutation matrices P^((k)) and XT_(i)=1 Σ_(i≠m) XT_(i,m) designates a total crosstalk coefficient quantifying the total crosstalk associated with the core core-i at the end of the optical transmission channel 13, the total crosstalk coefficient associated with the core core-i being dependent on the crosstalk coefficients quantifying the crosstalk between said core core-i and the remaining cores in the multi-core fiber.

Using the QR decomposition of the optical channel matrix, the singular value decomposition of the optical channel matrix can be expressed according to: H=U·Σ·V  (10)

In equation (10), the matrix Σ is a N_(c)×N_(c) diagonal matrix given by:

$\begin{matrix} {\Sigma = \begin{bmatrix} {\alpha_{1,p}{XT}_{1}} & \ldots & 0 \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ 0 & \ldots & {\alpha_{N_{c},p}{XT}_{N_{c}}} \end{bmatrix}} & (11) \end{matrix}$

Using the fiber decomposition into fiber spans, the misalignment losses coefficients α_(i,p) may be given by: α_(i,p)=Π_(k=1) ^(K)α_(i,p) ^(k) =c·exp(Z _(i,p));Z _(i,p)=Σ_(k=1) ^(K) −b(dx _(k,i) ² +dy _(k,i) ²)  (12)

In equation (12), c designates a constant multiplication factor, dx_(k,i) ² and dy_(k,i) ² for i=1, . . . , N_(c) designate Chi-squared distributed random variables with one degree of freedom, a mean value equal to (σ_((x,y),i))², and a variance equal to 2(σ_((x,y),i))⁴.

Given the types T_(n) of the cores of the multi-core fiber and using the concatenation of the K slices in the multi-core fiber, the variable Z_(i,p) can be expressed according to:

$\begin{matrix} {Z_{i,p} = {\underset{\underset{X_{1}}{︸}}{\left( {{- b_{1}}{\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{K_{1}}\;\left( {{dx}_{k,i}^{2} + {dy}_{k,i}^{2}} \right)}} \right)} + \cdots + \underset{\underset{X_{T}}{︸}}{\left( {{- b_{T}}{\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{K_{T}}\;\left( {{dx}_{k,i}^{2} + {dy}_{k,i}^{2}} \right)}} \right)}}} & (13) \end{matrix}$

In equation (13):

-   -   T designates the total number of different types of cores         associated with the cores of the multi-core fiber,     -   K_(j) for j=1, T designates the number of cores of the j^(th)         core type among the total number of different types of cores         associated with the cores of the multi-core fiber, and     -   X_(j) for j=1, . . . , T designates a normal distributed         variable with mean μ_(X) _(j) and variance σ_(X) _(j) ²,         expressed respectively according to:         μ_(X) _(j) =−2K _(j) b _(j)(σ_((x,y),j))²  (14)         σ_(X) _(j) ²=4K _(j) b _(j) ²(σ_((x,y),j))⁴  (15)

Considering embodiments in which the number of fiber spans K is high, the inventors showed that each variable Z_(i,p) can be modeled as a normally distributed variable with mean μ_(Z) _(i) =Σ_(j=1) ^(T)μ_(X) _(j) and a variance σ_(Z) _(i) ²=Σ_(j=1) ^(T)σ_(X) _(j) ². Accordingly, the total losses coefficients α_(i,p) can be modeled by a lognormal random variable with a mean value μ_(α) _(i) and a variance value σ_(α) _(i) ² given respectively by: μ_(α) _(i,p) =exp(μ_(Z) _(i) +σ_(Z) _(i) ²/2)  (16) σ_(α) _(i,p) ²=(exp(σ_(Z) _(i) ²)−1)·μ_(α) _(i) _(,p) ²  (17)

According to the derivation of the singular value decomposition of the optical channel matrix, the optical MIMO system of equation (10) can be expressed according to:

$\begin{matrix} {Y = {{{{\sqrt{L}.U.\begin{bmatrix} {\alpha_{1,p}{XT}_{1}} & \cdots & 0 \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ 0 & \ldots & {\alpha_{N_{c},p}{XT}_{N_{c}}} \end{bmatrix}}{V.X}} + N} = {{{\sqrt{L}.U.\begin{bmatrix} \lambda_{1,p} & \cdots & 0 \\ \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ 0 & \ldots & \lambda_{N_{c},p} \end{bmatrix}}{V.X}} + N}}} & (18) \end{matrix}$

According to equation (18), the system configuration device 17 may be configured to determine the core loss value λ_(n,p) associated with each core core-n, for n=1, . . . , N_(c) and resulting of the application of the scrambling function π, such that the core loss value λ_(n,p) is a lognormally distributed variable with mean μ_(λ) _(n,p) =μ_(α) _(n,p) XT_(n) and variance σ_(λ) _(n,p) ²=σ_(α) _(n,p) ²XT_(n) ², the mean and the variance of each core loss value being dependent on the fiber parameters involving the total crosstalk coefficient XT_(n) associated with said each core, on the misalignment losses and the scrambling function π rising in the mean and the variance of the lognormal distribution of the total losses coefficients α_(i,p). More specifically, the mean value μ_(λ) _(n,p) of each core loss value λ_(n,p) associated with each core core-n of the multi-core fiber is a product between a first value and a second value, the first value μ_(α) _(n) corresponding to the mean of the lognormal random variable α_(n) representing the total misalignment loss associated with the core core-n, the second value XT_(n) corresponding to the total crosstalk coefficient associated with said the core core-n. The variance value σ_(λ) _(n,p) ² of each core loss value λ_(n,p) associated with each core core-n of the multi-core fiber is the product between the square value XT_(n) ², of the total crosstalk coefficient XT_(n) associated with the core core-n and a third value corresponding to the variance σ_(α) _(n) ² of the lognormal random variable α_(n) representing the total misalignment loss associated with the core core-n.

In some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is heterogeneous, the system configuration device 17 may be configured to determine the core dependent loss value denoted by CDL_(heter) as a ratio between a first core loss value denoted by λ_(max,p) and a second core loss value denoted by λ_(min,p), the first value being given by the highest core loss value among the core loss values associated with each of the cores of the multi-core fiber, and the second value being given by the smallest core loss value among the core loss values associated with each of the cores of the multi-core fiber. The core dependent loss CDL_(heter) can be expressed in the logarithmic scale according to:

$\begin{matrix} {{CDL}_{{heter},{dB}} = {10{\log_{10}\left( \frac{\lambda_{\max,p}}{\lambda_{\min,p}} \right)}}} & (19) \end{matrix}$

Given the determined core loss values λ_(n,p) in association with each of the cores of the multi-core fiber, the system configuration device 17 may be configured to determine the core dependent loss value in the logarithmic scale according to a Gaussian distribution of mean denoted by μ_(CDL) and variance σ_(CDL) given respectively by:

$\begin{matrix} {\mu_{CDL_{heter}} = {{\frac{20}{\log\left( {10} \right)}{\log\left( \frac{XT_{i\;\max}}{XT_{i\;\min}} \right)}} + \mu_{Z_{i\;\max}} - \mu_{Z_{i\;\min}}}} & (20) \\ {\sigma_{CDL_{heter}}^{2} = {\frac{20}{\log\left( {10} \right)}{\left( {\log\left( \frac{XT_{i\;\max}}{XT_{i\;\min}} \right)} \right) \cdot \left( {\sigma_{Z_{i\;\max}}^{2} + \sigma_{Z_{i\;\min}}^{2}} \right)}}} & (21) \end{matrix}$

In equations (20) and (21), imax and imin designate respectively the numbering indices of the cores core-imax and core-imin associated respectively with the first core loss value λ_(max,p) and the second core loss value λ_(min,p).

According to other embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is homogeneous, the system configuration device 17 may be configured to perform an estimation of the core dependent loss value denoted by CDL_(hom) based on the setting a confidence interval rather than using the theoretical estimation given by equation (15). Indeed, the core loss values λ_(n,p) of homogeneous multi-core fibers have the same lognormal distribution with mean μ_(λ) _(n,p) =μ_(α) _(n,total) XT_(n) and variance σ_(λ) _(n,p) ²=σ_(α) _(n,total) ²XT_(n) ² with α_(n,total) designating the total misalignment loss at the end of the optical fiber link which is lognormal distributed with a mean μ_(α) _(n,total) and a variance σ_(α) _(n,total) ² given respectively according to: μ_(α) _(n,total) =exp(μ_(Z)+σ_(Z) ²/2)=exp(2Kb _(n)(b _(n)σ⁴ _((x,y),n)−σ_((x,y),n) ²))  (22) σ_(α) _(n,total) ²=(exp(σ_(Z) ²)−1)·μ_(α) _(n) ²=(exp(4Kb _(n) ²σ_((x,y),n) ⁴)−1)×μ_(α) _(n) ²  (23)

In equations (18) and (19), Z is a variable with a normal distribution with mean μ_(Z)=2 Kb(σ_((x,y)))² and variance σ_(Z) ²=4 Kb²σ_((x,y)) ⁴.

A confidence interval consists of a range of values that act as good estimates of a random parameter. The desired/target level of confidence is predefined. The most commonly used confidence levels are 68%, 90%, 95%, and 99%. The critical value γ of the confidence intervals C for Gaussian distributions can be obtained using the inverse of the cumulative distribution function Φ according to:

$\begin{matrix} {\gamma = {\Phi^{- 1} = \frac{\theta}{2}}} & (24) \end{matrix}$

In equation (20), θ is equal to

$\frac{\left( {1 - C} \right)}{2}.$

For homogeneous multi-core fibers, the core dependent loss value may be determined as the ratio between the upper limit and the lower limit of the confidence interval of the lognormal distribution corresponding to a predefined confidence level. The system configuration device 17 may be configured to determine at a first step the upper and lower limits for the Gaussian distribution Z. At a second step, the system configuration device 17 may be configured to convert the determined upper and lower limits by using the exponential function.

In some embodiments in which the confidence level is set to 90%, the upper and lower limits of the confidence interval respectively denoted by I_(max,p) and I_(min,p) are determined by the inventors according to: I _(max,p) =XT _(max) exp(

(μ_(Z)+1.6450σ_(Z)))  (25) I _(max,p) =XT _(min) exp(

(μ_(Z)|1.6450σ_(Z)))  (26)

The core dependent loss value in the logarithmic domain is determined accordingly as:

$\begin{matrix} {{CDL_{\hom,{dB}}} = {{10\mspace{11mu}\log_{10}\;\left( \frac{I_{\max,p}}{I_{\min,p}} \right)} = {\mathcal{N}\left( {{\left( {{8.6}8} \right) \times \left( {{\ln\left( \frac{XT_{\max}}{XT_{\min}} \right)} + \left( {{3.2}9\sigma_{Z}} \right)} \right)},\left( {8.68^{2} \times 2\sigma_{Z}^{2}} \right)} \right)}}} & (27) \end{matrix}$

In some embodiments, the system configuration device 17 may be configured to determine a target core dependent loss value denoted by CDL_(target) and to select at least one of the fiber parameters of the multi-core fiber depending on the core dependent loss value with respect to said target core dependent loss value.

In some embodiments, the system configuration device 17 may be further configured to determine the target core dependent loss value CDL_(target) depending on specified one or more target performance metrics. A target performance metric may be chosen in a group comprising a target signal-to-noise ratio and a target bit/symbol error rate.

According to some embodiments, the system configuration device 17 is configured to select one or more of the error correcting code, the modulation scheme, and the Space-Time code implemented at the transmitter device 11 depending on the core dependent loss value with respect to a target core dependent loss value.

According to some embodiments, the system configuration device 17 is configured to select one or more of the Space-Time decoding algorithm and the error correcting code decoding algorithm implemented at the optical receiver 15 depending on the core dependent loss value with respect to a target core dependent loss value.

In some embodiments, the system configuration device 17 is configured to determine the core dependent loss value offline (for example using simulations) during the design phase of the optical transmission channel 13, enabling the adaptation of the fiber parameters and the design of an optical transmission channel 13 to the system/application/transmission requirements and target specifications.

In other embodiments, the system configuration device 17 is configured to determine the core dependent loss value after the design of the optical transmission channel 13 for example in response to a core dependent loss computation request for adaptively adjusting the fiber parameters and/or the configurations of the optical transmitter 11 (e.g. an adaptive selection of the modulation scheme and/or of the error correcting code and/or and the Space-Time code) and/or the configuration of the optical receiver 13 (e.g. an adaptive selection of the Space-Time decoding algorithm and/or of the error correcting code decoder) according to one or more target performance metrics.

According to some embodiments, the scrambling function π is a random function according to which a first core core-n is randomly permuted with a second core core-m, the second core being randomly selected among the cores of the multi-core fibers with n≠m. In such embodiments, the entries of the permutation matrix P representing the scrambling function π are randomly selected for example using a random number generator.

In other embodiments, comprises a scrambling configuration device 16 configured to determine a scrambling function according to a deterministic scrambling criterion.

In some embodiments, deterministic scrambling criterion depends on one or more of core parameters associated with the cores of the multi-core fiber, a core parameter associated with each core of the multi-core fiber being chosen in a group comprising a core type and a core loss value.

The following description will be made with reference to a multi-core fiber in which each core core-n is associated with the set of core parameters {T_(n); λ_(n,p)} comprising the core type T_(n) and a core loss value λ_(n,p) corresponding to the scrambling function π, for illustration purposes.

According to some embodiments, the core scrambling may be performed depending on the core loss values for averaging the losses experienced by the different cores, advantageously enabling a reduction of the core dependent loss value.

In such embodiments, the scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to order the two or more cores of the multi-core fiber according to a given order (increasing or decreasing) of the core loss values associated with said two or more cores. The cores core-i for i taking value between 1 and N_(c) may be accordingly ordered in a numbered list denoted by

=({core₁,{T₁,λ_(1,p)}},{core₃,{T₂,λ_(2,p)}},{core₃,{T₃,λ_(3,p)}}, . . . , {core_(N) _(c) ,{T_(N) _(c) ,λ_(N) _(c) _(,p)}}) such that each core core_(i) in the numbered list C is associated with a core loss value λ_(i,p) higher than or smaller than the core loss value λ_(i+1,p) associated with the core core_(i+1,p) depending on the given order considered to order the cores.

For example, for an increasing order of the core loss values, the cores core_(i) are ordered in the list such that the core loss value λ_(i,p) associated with the core core_(i) is smaller than or equal to the core loss value λ_(i+1,p) associated with the core core_(i+1), that is λ_(i,p)≤λ_(i+1),p for i=1, . . . , N_(c)−1.

In embodiments using a decreasing order of the core loss values, the cores core_(i) may be ordered in the list such that the core loss value λ_(i,p) associated with the core core_(i) is higher than or equal to the core loss value λ_(i+1,p) associated with the core core_(i+1), that is λ_(i,p)≥λ_(i+1,p) for i=1, . . . , N_(c)−1.

The deterministic scrambling criterion may be accordingly dependent on the order of the core loss values λ_(n,p) associated with the cores core-n for n=1, . . . , N_(c).

Using the notation of the numbered list, the scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to determine the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π for permuting a core core_(i) with a core core_(j) in the numbered list with i taking value between 1 and N_(c) and j=N_(c)−i+1. Accordingly, the scrambling function π may enable permuting the core core₁ with the core core_(N) _(c) , permuting the core core₂ with the core core_(N) _(c) ⁻¹, etc such that the core associated with the first highest core loss value is permuted with the core associated with the first lowest core loss value, the core associated with the second highest core loss value is permuted with the core associated with the second lowest core loss value, so on.

In some embodiments in which the number N_(c)≥2 of cores in the multi-core fiber is an even number, the scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to determine the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π for permuting the two or more cores two-by-two according to the permutation of the core core_(i) associated with the i^(th) highest core loss value with the core core_(N) _(c) _(−i+1) associated with the i^(th) lowest core loss value, with i being comprised between 1 and the half of the number of cores in the multi-core fiber, that is

${i = 1},\ldots\;,{\frac{N_{c}}{2}.}$

In other embodiments in which the number N_(c)≥2 of cores in the multi-core fiber is an odd number, the scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to determine the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π for permuting the two or more cores two-by-two according to the permutation of the core core_(i) associated with the i^(th) highest core loss value with the core core_(N) _(c) _(−i+1) associated with the i^(th) lowest core loss value, with i being comprised between 1 and the floor part of half the number of cores in said multi-core fiber, that is

${i = 1},\ldots\;,\left\lfloor \frac{N_{c}}{2} \right\rfloor,$ the operator └·┘ designating the floor operation. Accordingly, the core

${core}_{{\lfloor\frac{N_{c}}{2}\rfloor} + 1}$ may not be permuted.

In particular, in some embodiments in which the cores are arranged in the fiber according to a 2D grid, the core

${core}_{{\lfloor\frac{N_{c}}{2}\rfloor} + 1}$ may correspond to the central core.

The determination of the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π depending on the core loss values may be performed for optical transmission systems using a homogeneous or a heterogeneous multi-core fiber.

According to some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is heterogeneous, the scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to determine the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π depending on the core types T_(n) for n=1, . . . , N_(c) associated with the two or more cores, the scrambling function π according to said deterministic scrambling criterion corresponding to a two-by-two permutation of said two or more cores according to the permutation of at least a first core core_(n) with a second core core_(m) with n≠m, the first core core_(n) and the second core core_(m) being associated with different core types T_(n)≠T_(m).

In some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is an heterogeneous multi-core fiber, the scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to determine the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π depending on the core types T_(n) for n=1, . . . , N_(c) and the core loss values λ_(n,p) for n=1, . . . , N_(c) associated with the N_(c) cores, the scrambling function π according to said deterministic scrambling criterion corresponding to a two-by-two permutation of said two or more cores according to the permutation of at least a first core core_(n) with a second core core_(m) with n≠m, the first core core_(n) and the second core core_(m) being associated with different core types T_(n)≠T_(m) and different core loss values.

The scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to communicate the determined scrambling function π to at least one scrambling device 133 arranged in the optical transmission channel 13 for scrambling the cores in the multi-core fiber by applying the scrambling function π.

In some embodiments in which the optical fiber is a concatenation of K fiber slices, the optical transmission channel 13 may comprise at least one scrambling device 133 arranged periodically in the optical transmission channel 13 according to a scrambling period denoted by K_(scr). Accordingly, a scrambling device 133 may be arranged in the k^(th) fiber slice if k is a multiple of the scrambling period.

The scrambling function π may be represented in a two-dimensional form according to

${\pi = \begin{pmatrix} {core}_{1} & {{core}_{2}\mspace{11mu}\ldots} & {core}_{N_{c}} \\ {\pi\left( {core}_{1} \right)} & {{\pi\left( {core}_{2} \right)}\mspace{11mu}\ldots} & {\pi\left( {core}_{N_{c}} \right)} \end{pmatrix}},$ where a core core_(i) is permuted with the core core_(j)=π(core_(i)) of a different type.

The scrambling function π may be represented in a matrix form by a permutation matrix denoted by P, the entries of the permutation matrix are given by:

$\begin{matrix} {P_{ij} = \left\{ \begin{matrix} 1 & {{{if}\mspace{14mu}{\pi\left( {core}_{i} \right)}} = {core}_{j}} \\ 0 & {otherwise} \end{matrix} \right.} & (28) \end{matrix}$

According to some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is heterogeneous, the scrambling configuration device 17 may be configured to determine the scrambling function π depending on the core types T_(n) for n=1, . . . , N_(c) associated with the cores in the multi-core fiber by applying, for example and without limitation, a scrambling technique chosen in a group comprising a snail scrambling technique, a rotation scrambling technique, and a snake scrambling technique.

In order to apply one of the snail, rotation, and snake scrambling techniques, the scrambling configuration device 17 may be first configured to classify the cores core-i for i taking value between 1 and N_(c) in a numbered set denoted by

=({core₁,{T₁,λ_(1,p)}},{core₃,{T₂,λ_(2,p)}},{core₃,{T₃,λ_(3,p)}}, . . . , {core_(N) _(c) ,{T_(N) _(c) ,λ_(N) _(c,p) }}) such that each core core_(i) in the numbered list C is associated with different core types, for i=1, . . . , N_(c).

Using the numbering of the cores in the set C and according to any of the snail, rotation, or snake scrambling techniques, the scrambling configuration device 17 may determine the scrambling function π such that for each core core_(i) in the set

with i=1, . . . , N_(c)−1, the core core_(i) is permuted with the core π(core_(i))=core_(i+1) and that the core core_(N) _(c) is permuted with the core π(core_(N) _(c) )=core₁. The scrambling function π is accordingly expressed in a two-dimensional form as

$\pi = {\begin{pmatrix} {core}_{1} & {{core}_{2}\mspace{11mu}\ldots} & {core}_{N_{c}} \\ {core}_{2} & {{core}_{3}\mspace{11mu}\ldots} & {core}_{1} \end{pmatrix}.}$ Based on this scrambling function, the symbols propagating through the different cores are permuted such that the i^(th) symbol propagating through the core core_(i), propagates after the application of the scrambling function through the core π(core_(i)).

In a first example, the snail scrambling technique corresponds to the application of the scrambling rule π(core_(i))=core_(i+1) for i=1, . . . , N_(c)−1 and π(core_(N) _(c) )=core₁ in a heterogeneous multi-core fiber comprising an odd number of cores among which a core is a central core and the remaining cores are arranged in the edges of the hexagon. In particular, depending on the ordering of the cores in the set

, the core core₁ may correspond to the central core.

FIG. 11 is a cross section view of a 7-cores heterogeneous multi-core fiber in which the seven cores are scrambled using a snail scrambling technique according to the clockwise direction such that the central core is permuted with his neighbor core located on the right side and that each of the remaining cores is permuted with its left-hand neighbor core of a different type, the core located on the left side of the central core being permuted with the central core. The scrambling function may be written in this example in the two-dimensional form as

$\pi = \begin{pmatrix} {core}_{1} & {{core}_{2}\mspace{11mu}\ldots} & {core}_{7} \\ {core}_{2} & {{core}_{3}\mspace{11mu}\ldots} & {core}_{1} \end{pmatrix}$ such that core₁ corresponds to the central core and in the matrix representation according to:

$P = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \end{pmatrix}$

The symbols s₁, s₂, . . . , s₇ are accordingly permuted such that after the application of the scrambling function, the symbol s₁ propagates through the core core₂, each symbol s_(i) for i=2, . . . , 6 propagates through the core core_(i+1), and the symbol s₇ propagates through the central core.

FIG. 12 illustrates a cross section view of a 12-cores heterogeneous multi-core fiber in which the twelve cores are permuted using a rotation scrambling technique according to the clockwise direction. The cores are arranged in a ring form. Using the rotation scrambling technique, each core is permuted with its right-hand neighbor core of a different type such that π(core_(i))=core_(i+1) for i=1, . . . , 11 and the core core₁₂ is permuted with the core core₁.

FIG. 13 illustrates a cross section view of a 32-cores heterogeneous multi-core fiber in which the cores are permuted using a snake scrambling technique according to the clockwise direction. The cores are arranged in a two-dimensional grid comprising six layers. The first upper layer comprises four cores numbered as core₁, core₂, core₃, core₄. The second layer located underside the first layer comprises six cores numbered as core₅-core₁₀. The third layer located underside the second layer comprises six cores numbered core₁₁-core₁₆. The fourth layer located below the third layer comprises six cores numbered core₁₇-core₂₂. The fifth layer located below the fourth layer comprises six cores numbered core₂₃-core₂₈. And finally a lower layer comprises four cores numbered core₂₉-core₃₂. According to the snake scrambling technique, each core in each layer is permuted with its right-hand neighbor core of a different type, the last core of each layer is permuted with the first core of the layer located below said each layer, and the core core₃₂ (i.e. the last core of the lower layer) is permuted with the core core₁ (i.e. with the first core of the upper layer).

FIGS. 11, 12, and 13 illustrate examples of the application of the snail, rotation, and snake scrambling techniques according to a permutation of the cores in the clockwise direction. However, it should be noted that the snail, rotation, and snake scrambling techniques may be also applied according to a permutation of the cores in the counterclockwise direction.

Using the matrix notation of the scrambling function, the optical fiber transmission channel including the scrambling devices 133 can be expressed according to: Y=√{square root over (L)}Π_(k=1) ^(K)((H _(XT,k))M _(k) P ^((k)))X+N  (29)

In equation (29), the matrix P^((k)) is a N_(c)×N_(c) matrix representing the application of the scrambling function π in the k^(th) fiber span by the k^(th) scrambling device, k being a multiple of the scrambling period.

According to some embodiments, at least one scrambling device 133 may be configured to apply the scrambling function π in the electrical field.

In other embodiments, at least one scrambling device 133 may be an optical device, configured to apply the scrambling function π in the optical field. Exemplary optical scrambling devices comprise converters, optical multiplexers, optical multiplexing devices, and photonic lanterns.

According to some embodiments, the scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to determine the scrambling function during the phase of the design of the optical fiber transmission channel prior to the installation of the scrambling device(s) 133.

In other embodiments, the scrambling configuration device 16 may be configured to determine the scrambling function for the configuration of one or more scrambling devices 133 in an operating optical transmission channel 13. In such embodiments, the scrambling configuration device 15 may be configured to communicate the determined scrambling function to the system configuration device 17.

There is also provided a method for determining a core dependent loss value for an optical fiber communication system 100 in which data is transmitted over an optical fiber transmission channel 13 made of a multi-core fiber, optical signals carrying said data propagate along the multi-core fiber according to N_(c)≥2 (two or more) cores, the multi-core fiber being associated with fiber parameters and misalignment losses values, the method comprising scrambling the two or more cores according to a scrambling function π. The method comprises determining a core dependent loss value depending on the fiber parameters, the misalignment losses values, and the scrambling function π.

FIG. 10 is a flowchart depicting a method for determining a core dependent loss value in a multi-core fiber optical transmission system 100 according to some embodiments of the invention in which a single polarization, a single wavelength, a single carrier uncoded modulation without the application of Space-Time coding, are used and each core of the multi-core fiber is a single-mode core.

At step 1001, fiber parameters of the multi-core fiber and misalignment losses values may be received.

In some embodiments, the fiber parameters comprise the number of cores N_(c)≥2, the length L of the fiber, crosstalk coefficients XT_(n,m) with n, m∈{1, . . . , N_(c)}, and coupling coefficients k_(n,m) with n, m∈{1, . . . , N_(c)}, each crosstalk coefficient XT_(n,m) representing a crosstalk between the core-n and the core-m with n≠m in the multi-core fiber, each coupling coefficient k_(n,m) representing a coupling the core-n and the core-m with n≠m in the multi-core fiber.

In some embodiments, the fiber parameters may further comprise the bending radius R_(b), the cladding diameter, the number K of fiber slices, the radius of each core of the multi-core fiber, and the type T_(n) of each core core-n of the multi-core fiber, with n=1, . . . , N_(c).

In some embodiments, a misalignment may be chosen in a group comprising a longitudinal misalignment, a transverse misalignment, and an angular misalignment.

In some embodiments, the misalignment losses values may be previously determined according to equation (1).

At step 1003 a scrambling function 7 represented by a permutation matrix P may be received.

In some embodiments, the scrambling function 7 is a random function according to which a first core core-n is randomly permuted with a second core core-m, the second core being randomly selected among the cores of the multi-core fibers with n≠m. In such embodiments, the entries of the permutation matrix P representing the scrambling function 7 are randomly selected for example using a random number generator.

In other embodiments, the scrambling function 7 is a deterministic function previously determined according to a deterministic scrambling criterion.

In some embodiments, the deterministic scrambling criterion depends on one or more of core parameters associated with the cores of the multi-core fiber, a core parameter associated with each core of the multi-core fiber being chosen in a group comprising a core type T_(n) and a core loss value λ_(n,p) for n=1, . . . , N_(c).

According to an embodiment, the deterministic scrambling criterion depends on the core loss values associated with the two or more cores of the multi-core fiber.

In some embodiments, the cores may be ordered in a numbered list

=({core₁, {T₁, λ_(1,p)},{core₃,{T₂, λ_(2,p)}},{core₃,{T₃,λ_(3,p)}}, . . . , {core_(N) _(c) ,{T_(N) _(c) ,λ_(N) _(c) _(,p)}}) such that each core core_(i) in the numbered list

is associated with a core loss value λ_(i,p) higher than or smaller than the core loss value λ_(i+1,p) associated with the core core_(i+1) depending on the given order considered to order the cores. Given the order of the core loss values, the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π may depend on the order of the core loss values associated with the two or more cores.

In an embodiment considering the numbered list of the ordered cores, the deterministic scrambling criterion may correspond to the permutation of the core core_(i) associated with the i^(th) highest core loss value with the core core_(N) _(c) _(−i+1) associated with the i^(th) lowest core loss value, with

${i = 1},\ldots\;,\frac{N_{c}}{2}$ for an even number of cores N_(c) and

${i = 1},\ldots\;,\left\lfloor \frac{N_{c}}{2} \right\rfloor$ for an odd number of cores N_(c).

The determination of the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π depending on the core loss values associated with the cores of the multi-core fiber may be performed in embodiments considering a homogeneous or a heterogeneous multi-core fiber.

In some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is heterogeneous, the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π may be determined depending on the core types T_(n) for n=1, associated with the cores in the multi-core fiber. In such embodiments, the deterministic scrambling criterion corresponds to a two-by-two permutation of the cores according to the permutation of at least a first core core_(n) with a second core core_(m) with n≠m, the first core core_(n) and the second core core_(m) being associated with different core types T_(n)≠T_(m).

In some embodiments, the scrambling function may be determined depending on the core types using one of the snail, rotation, or the snake scrambling techniques.

In other embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is heterogeneous, the deterministic scrambling criterion and the corresponding scrambling function π may be determined depending the core types T_(n) for n=1, . . . , N_(c) and the core loss values λ_(n,p) for n=1, . . . , N_(c) associated with the N_(c) cores, the deterministic scrambling criterion corresponding in such embodiments to a two-by-two permutation of the N_(c) cores according to the permutation of at least a first core core_(n) with a second core core_(m) with n≠m, the first core core_(n) and the second core core_(m) being associated with different core types T_(n)≠T_(m) and different core loss values.

At step 1005, the core loss value λ_(n,p) associated with each core core-n for n=1, . . . , N_(c) may be determined. In particular, the core loss values associated with the cores of the multi-core fiber may be determined depending on the crosstalk coefficients and at least one misalignment loss value for a given scrambling function π according to equation (18).

According to some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is heterogeneous, a core dependent loss value CDL_(het) may be determined at step 1005 as a ratio between a first core loss value denoted by λ_(max,p) and a second core loss value denoted by λ_(min,p), the first value being given by the highest core loss value among the core loss values associated with each of the cores of the multi-core fiber, and the second value being given by the smallest core loss value among the core loss values associated with each of the cores of the multi-core fiber. The core dependent loss CDL_(heter) can be expressed in the logarithmic scale according to equation (19).

According to some embodiments in which the multi-core fiber is homogeneous, a core dependent loss value CDL_(hom) may be determined at step 1005 as the ratio between the upper limit and the lower limit of a confidence interval of a lognormal distribution corresponding to a predefined confidence level according to equation (27).

According to some embodiments, the determined core dependent loss value may be considered for the selection and/or the adaptation of at least one of the fiber parameters and/or of the scrambling function π and/or of the number of scrambling devices used for performing core scrambling depending on the core dependent loss value with respect to a target core dependent loss value.

In some embodiments, a target core dependent loss may be previously determined depending on one or more target performance metrics for example chosen in a group comprising a target signal-to-noise ratio and a target bit/symbol error rate.

In some embodiments, the method of determining a core dependent loss value for a given configuration of the optical fiber transmission channel 13 (i.e. given fiber parameters, the number of scrambling devices 133) is performed offline before the design of the optical fiber transmission channel 13, enabling the adaptation of the fiber parameters and the design of an optical transmission channel 13 to the system/application/transmission requirements and target specifications.

In other embodiments, the method of determining a core dependent loss value for a given configuration of the optical fiber transmission channel 13 is performed after the design of the optical fiber transmission channel 14 for performing an adaptive selection of one or more of the fiber parameters and/or adaptive manufacturing of the multi-core fiber and/or an adaptive selection of one or more of transmission configuration parameters comprising:

-   -   an error correcting code used to encode data transmitted over         the optical transmission channel 13;     -   a modulation scheme used to modulate said encoded data into a         set of modulated symbols;     -   a Space-Time code used to determine a Space-Time codeword from         said modulated symbols;     -   a Space-Time decoding algorithm used to determine an estimate of         said Space-Time codeword, and     -   an error correcting code decoder used to determine an estimate         of the data transmitted over the optical transmission channel         13.

Although the various embodiments have been detailed in the case of single-core multi-mode fibers in which a single polarization, a single wavelength and single-carrier modulation are used, it should be noted that the invention can also be applied in multi-core multi-mode fibers in combination with polarization multiplexing using two polarizations and/or in combination with the use of wavelength multiplexing using several wavelengths, and/or using multi-carrier modulation formats.

Further, the invention is not limited to communication applications and may be integrated in other applications such as data storage and medical imaging. The invention may be used in several optical transmission systems, for example automotive industry applications, in oil or gas markets, in aerospace and avionics sectors, sensing applications, etc.

While embodiments of the invention have been illustrated by a description of various examples, and while these embodiments have been described in considerable details, it is not the intent of the applicant to restrict or in any way limit the scope of the appended claims to such details. Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to those skilled in the art. The invention in its broader aspects is therefore not limited to the specific details, representative methods, and illustrative examples shown and described. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. An optical transmission system comprising an optical transmitter configured to transmit data over an optical fiber transmission channel comprising a multi-core fiber, said data being carried by optical signals, said optical signals propagating along the multi-core fiber according to two or more cores, said multi-core fiber being associated with fiber parameters and misalignment losses values, at least one scrambling device being arranged in said optical fiber transmission channel for scrambling said two or more cores according to a scrambling function, wherein the optical fiber transmission channel comprises a system configuration device configured to determine a core dependent loss value depending on the fiber parameters, at least one misalignment loss value, a number of said at least one scrambling device, and the scrambling function.
 2. The optical transmission system of claim 1, wherein said fiber parameters comprise a fiber length, a number of cores at least equal to two, crosstalk coefficients, and coupling coefficients, each crosstalk coefficient representing a crosstalk between two cores in said multi-core fiber, each coupling coefficient representing a coupling between two cores in said multi-core fiber.
 3. The optical transmission system of claim 1, wherein a misalignment loss value represents a misalignment of the multi-core fiber chosen in a group comprising a longitudinal misalignment, a transverse misalignment and an angular misalignment.
 4. The optical transmission system of claim 1, wherein the system configuration device is configured to determine a core loss value associated with each core of the multi-core fiber depending on said fiber parameters, said at least one misalignment loss value, the number of said at least one scrambling device, and said scrambling function.
 5. The optical transmission system of claim 4, wherein the system configuration device is configured to determine each core loss value as a random variable of a lognormal distribution defined by a mean value and a variance value, said mean value and variance value being dependent on the fiber parameters and at least one misalignment loss value.
 6. The optical transmission system of claim 5, wherein the mean value of each core loss value associated with each core of the multi-core fiber is a product between a first value and a second value, the first value corresponding to the mean of a lognormal random variable representing a total misalignment loss associated with said each core, the second value corresponding to a total crosstalk coefficient associated with said each core, the total crosstalk coefficient associated with a given core being determined from the crosstalk coefficients representing the crosstalk between said given core and the cores of the multi-core fiber different from said given core, the variance value of each core loss value associated with each core of the multi-core fiber being the product between the square value of the total crosstalk coefficient associated with said each core and a third value corresponding to the variance of said lognormal random variable representing the total misalignment loss associated with said each core.
 7. The optical transmission system of claim 1, wherein the system configuration device is further configured to determine a target core dependent loss value and to select at least one of the fiber parameters of the multi-core fiber depending on the core dependent loss value with respect to said target core dependent loss value.
 8. The optical transmission system of claim 1, wherein a target performance metric is chosen in a group comprising a target signal-to-noise ratio and a target bit or symbol error rate.
 9. The optical transmission system of claim 1, wherein the optical transmission system comprises a scrambling configuration device configured to determine a scrambling function according to a deterministic scrambling criterion.
 10. The optical transmission system of claim 9, wherein said deterministic scrambling criterion depends on one or more of core parameters associated with the cores of the multi-core fiber, a core parameter associated with each core of the multi-core fiber being chosen in a group comprising a core type and a core loss value.
 11. The optical transmission system of claim 10, wherein a scrambling configuration device is configured to order the two or more cores of the multi-core fiber according to a given order of the core loss values associated with said two or more cores, the deterministic scrambling criterion being dependent on the order of the core loss values associated with said two or more cores.
 12. The optical transmission system of claim 9, wherein the multi-core fiber is an heterogeneous multi-core fiber, the scrambling configuration device being configured to determine said deterministic scrambling criterion depending on the core types associated with said two or more cores, the scrambling function according to said deterministic scrambling criterion corresponding to a two-by-two permutation of said two or more cores according to the permutation of at least a first core with a second core, the first core and the second core being associated with different core types.
 13. The optical transmission system of claim 10, wherein the multi-core fiber is an heterogeneous multi-core fiber, the scrambling configuration device being configured to determine said deterministic scrambling criterion depending on the core types and the core loss values associated with the two or more cores, the scrambling function according to said deterministic scrambling criterion corresponding to a two-by-two permutation of said two or more cores according to the permutation of at least a first core with a second core, the first core and the second core being associated with different core types and different core loss values.
 14. An optical transmission method for transmitting data over an optical fiber transmission channel comprising a multi-core fiber, said data being carried by optical signals, said optical signals propagating along the multi-core fiber according to two or more cores, said multi-core fiber being associated with fiber parameters and misalignment losses values, wherein the method comprises scrambling said two or more cores according to a scrambling function by at least one scrambling device arranged in said optical fiber transmission channel, the method comprising using a system configuration device for determining a core dependent loss value depending on the fiber parameters, on at least one misalignment loss value, on a number of said at least one scrambling device, and on said scrambling function. 